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Nehar Deah
Tetzave
The Menorah and its Significance in Ancient Times
The menorah, or seven branched candelabra, is the most common and typical
motif in the ancient Jewish religion. It first appears in the historical
recollections of the people of Israel as a central object in the tabernacle
(see Nahardea on parashat Teruma for more information), and maintained
this central status in the First and Second Temples. In the Second Temple
period, or to be more precise, in the second half of the first century
BCE, the menorah appeared in Jerusalem, in a limited number of contexts,
and then disappeared completely for a period of two hundred years. However,
from the third and fourth centuries onwards, the menorah is rediscovered
in hundreds of contexts and in the next few centuries becomes the central
Jewish symbol. The central status of the menorah was maintained both in
the Diaspora and in the land of Israel, both in cemeteries and in synagogues.
Below we will try to explain how the menorah became such a central symbol
in the life of the nation.
Second Temple Period:
Towards the end of the Second Temple period, the menorah appeared in
Jewish art in three contexts, all in Jerusalem:
- on a small bronze coin (which even today we still have four examples
of) which was minted by the last Hasmonean king;
- an engraving of a seven branched menorah was found on two pieces
of plaster, found in excavations of the upper city of Jerusalem, and
they are dated to the time of the rule of Herod (37 – 4 BCE);
- On the back of a stone sundial from the Herodian period, which was
discovered in excavations of the temple mount, we find engraved a seven
branched menorah, a central branch and a possible indication of a base;
- Five menorot (plural of menorah) with seven branches each where found
engraved on the grave of Jason in the Rechavia section of Jerusalem.
Even though we have only a few examples of menorot from the Second Temple
period, it seems that this motif is connected primarily to the centrality
of the Temple in Jerusalem. In addition, there is reasonable scope for
the assumption that the description of the menorah is connected primarily,
maybe even uniquely, to the Cohanim (priests) in Jerusalem.
The most famous display of the menorah from the first century CE appears
on the Arch of Titus. Even though it was created in Rome about ten years
after the destruction of the temple (which took place in 70 CE), it is
accepted that at least the upper part of this menorah accurately reflects
the menorah that once stood in the Temple. However, there is disagreement
between researchers as to the base of this menorah, upon which are depicted
animals and mythological creatures, eagles bearing wreathes in their beaks
and a variety of sea monsters. There are those who assume that the base
of the menorah on the Arch of Titus is an accurate representation of the
menorah that was in the Temple, but it is more reasonable to assume that
the Romans added the base to the menorah for the victory parade that is
immortalized on the Arch of Titus, either because the base of Temple menorah
broke or in order to give the fragile base of the menorah a more stable
and strong frame for the parade. (The fame of this menorah led to it becoming
part of the symbol of the state of Israel.)
The Latter Part of the Ancient Period:
The earliest description of the menorah in a Jewish public institution
is found in the synagogue of Dura Europus, which has been dated to the
middle of the third century (244-245 CE). The menorah appears there in
three separate scenes, the most outstanding of which is on the holy ark
next to a depiction of the façade of the Temple; next to the menorah
are depictions of a lulav (combined palm, willow and myrtle branches),
etrog (citron), and opposite that, on the other side of the Temple, appears
a depiction of the binding of Isaac. In other places at Dura Europus,
the menorah is depicted in front of the tabernacle – in a depiction
of the camp of Israel in the dessert and a depiction of the dedication
of the mishkan (tabernacle) by the priests. The menorah, at Dura Europus,
is therefore connected always with either the Temple or mishkan.
As is mentioned above, towards the end of the ancient period, the menorah
gained unprecedented popularity among the Jews. It appeared throughout
the Jewish world on a variety of objects and parts of buildings: mosaic
floors, murals, capitals of columns, hewn stone, marble slabs, basins,
household articles, lamps, sarcophagi and tombstones. There were also
three dimensional menorot, able to stand without support, and these are
found in isolated places such as Saradis, Tiberius, Ein Gedi and at three
sites in the southern Judean hills (Maon, Sussiya and Eshtamoa). By the
end of the ancient period the menorah had become the major Jewish symbol.
In certain cases the menorah appeared in connection with the Temple or
synagogue, but generally it was displayed as a symbol, without any definite
representative context. Due to this, we can relate to this symbolic meaning
of the menorah as a new development. Until the third century, there was
very little display of the menorah and it seems that this avoidance derived
from the sacred nature granted to it and which was the probable basis
for the prohibition of chazal (literally “our sages of blessed memory”)
regarding making a menorah (Babylonian Talmud, Menachot 28b and others).
The fact that from the third century, and especially from the fourth century
onwards, there seemed to be no objection to displaying the menorah, shows
that a significant change took place in this respect. The question is
therefore asked, why in this time period specifically, did them menorah
become such a popular symbol? This requires us to examine the wider context
of the pagan and Christian world of that time.
When we come to explain this phenomenon, we need to take into consideration
two factors. Firstly, we know of a similar phenomenon in the later Roman
religion; towards the end of the Roman Empire there was a move from a
religion which was basically representative, to a religion based on symbols
with many different meanings. Only in very few cases were the descriptions
appearing in various pagan contexts meant to convey religious truths.
The beginnings of the move to the use of symbolism, as far as we know,
were the mysterious rituals performed towards the end of the ancient period
and this phenomenon gained impetus among Byzantine Christians. From then
on, wide use was made of Biblical scenes to propagate Christian beliefs,
and also late Roman-Byzantine beliefs, characterized by emphasis on the
religious and symbolic meanings of artistic creations. It seems that we
cannot separate the appearance of the menorah as a common Jewish symbol,
from these developments which took place in the Christian-Byzantine world.
The use of symbols was more common then than it had ever been before;
with Christianity being at the forefront of these developments, with state
and church resources at its disposal and the Jews could not remain indifferent
to such a trend.
Another factor which should be taken into consideration, when we wish
to explain the popularity of the menorah in the Byzantine period, is the
widespread use of the cross. In the 4th and 5th centuries the cross was
present everywhere – on Christian buildings, in burial sites and
in homes – and individuals also wore them. The use of the menorah,
at least partially, as a Jewish response to the Christian usage of the
cross, is not just a theoretical possibility. In a number of archaeological
findings, the menorah appears precisely in the place where in Christian
context one would find a cross (on gratings, oil lamps and others).
Why was the menorah specifically chosen as the central Jewish symbol?
In the absence of explicit sources on this issue, we can only suggest
a number of possibilities. It is clear that the temple played the major
role in defining the significance of the menorah. The connection between
the menorah and the tree, life and over all else, light, was obviously
an attractive component, as the use of light, as is well known, played
an important role in Judaism of those days, on the Sabbath and festivals,
especially the festival of Channuka (literally “dedication”,
the Festival of Lights). Despite this, the actual desire to transform
a specific object into a symbol is a result of the temptations and challenges
which Judaism had to face in the Byzantine period. These created, on one
hand the need, and on the other hand, the willingness, to further enrich
the concrete and visual aspects of Judaism. As a result of this meeting
between Judaism and Christianity, the menorah became a characteristic
Jewish symbol both throughout Israel and the Diaspora.
Professor Yisrael L. Levin
Jewish History Department
Characters – Titus
In the year 66 the “Great Revolt” broke out, with the Jews
rebelling against the Romans. Initially, the Roman governor of Syria,
Gallus, tried to quell the revolt and after he failed, the Roman Caesar,
Nero, appointed the militariy leader, Vespasian, to lead the army he was
sending to fight the rebels. Vespasian’s son, Titus (born in 40/41),
was given command of one of the legions and fought against the Jews of
the Galilee. In the year 69, Vespasian was appointed Caesar and returned
to Italy and thus Titus apparently became the highest ranking military
leader in Judah. He besieged Jerusalem, conquered the city and in the
year 70, destroyed the Temple. In the year 71, Titus returned to Rome,
where he was honored, together with his father, in a triumphant victory
parade and also in his honor, a victory arch was built (known today as
the “Arch of Titus”) which depicted the bringing of the temple
vessels – among them the menorah – to Rome. With the death
of Vespasian in the year 79, Titus became the Roman Caesar. During his
rule there was, for the most part, peace throughout the Empire, but there
were attempts to harm or overthrow his rule. In the year 79, Italy suffered
a natural disaster with the eruption of a volcano, which destroyed, amongst
others, the city of Pompeii. (As an aside, the Jews interpreted this as
a punishment for destroying the Temple.) Titus died in the year 81, after
only a short period of rule.
Titus revealed, in his war against Judea, extreme cruelty, both in the
manner in which he conducted the war and also in his dealings with people
who had been defeated or taken captive. All available sources –
Jewish and non-Jewish – bear witness to the fact that he burnt down
the Temple, except for Yosef ben Matityahu (Josephus Flavius), who claims
that it was done without his knowledge. According to the Roman historian,
Dio Cassius, Titus burnt the Temple in order to uproot the root cause
of the Jewish rebellion. In this light it is easy to understand why Titus
is described in many folklore traditions as being “an evil person”.
The most famous story about him appears in a number of versions with slight
differences between them. In the beginning, the story begins with the
terrible deeds of Titus, inside the Temple and even within the Holy of
Holies, and afterwards tells that Titus placed the Temple vessels on a
ship and wanted to send them to Rome. The story continues (as found in
the Babylonian Talmud, Gittin 56b):
A gale sprang up at sea which threatened to wreck him. He said: “Apparently
the power of the God of these people is only over water… If he is
really mighty, let him come up on the dry land and fight with me.”
A voice went forth from heaven saying: “…I have a tiny creature
in my world called a gnat… Go up on the dry land and make war with
it.”
When went up onto dry land, the gnat came and entered his nose, and it
knocked on his brain for seven years… and when he died they split
open his skull and found there something like a sparrow, two sela's in
weight.
This legend is probably influenced by the sudden death of Titus at a
relatively young age, only a few years after the destruction of the Temple,
as it shows the revenge of the God of Israel. The Roman historian, Suetonius,
declares that Titus himself viewed his death as a punishment for his misdeeds,
but Jewish sources tell us that Titus was aware of the severity of his
deeds in destroying the Temple, as is told in the continuation of the
quotation brought above: “When he died he said: Burn me and scatter
my ashes over the seven seas so that the God of the Jews should not find
me and bring me to trial.”
Symbols – The Menorah as a Symbol of the State of Israel
The Arch of Titus has been used in modern times, among others, as a symbol
of destruction. Thus, for example, it appears in a series of stamps issued
by the Jewish National Fund in 1942 as a commemoration of the destruction
of European Jewry. At the end of the Second World War, the Arch of Titus
and the menorah which appears upon it, underwent a change of significance
and changed from a symbol of destruction to a symbol of revival. Yitzchak
Yitzchak’s song – which was sung by the Entertainment Staff
of the soldiers of the Jewish Brigade who arrived in Europe at the end
of the war and helped with the rehabilitation of the Jewish refugees –
clearly reflects this change. The song describes two soldiers, a man and
a woman, from the brigade who are touring the area of the Arch of Titus:
“All roads lead to Rome, this, young girl, should not make you
despair…
A couple, lovers, two Sabras from Canaan, Rut and Amnon from the Jezreel
Valley,
Are doing a tour they have never done before, to the Arch of Titus,
at midnight…
Oh Titus, Titus, would that you would have seen, who had the triumph
and the songs of praise,
Beside the arch which you built, a couple, lovers, from the land of
Israel…”
On the 14 Shevat 5709 (11 February 1949), the menorah was presented to
the public with olive branches on either side. The menorah was chosen
by a special committee, after nine months of deliberations, to stand in
the centre of the national coat of arms. The menorah was designed by the
brothers Maxim and Gavriel Shamir, who suggested at first that the menorah,
which is a traditional symbol, should be designed in a modern style, but
the committee requested that they design it similar to the menorah on
the Arch of Titus, in order to symbolize the end of the diaspora.
A year later, in 1950, Lord Samuel, the son of the first British High
Commissioner Herbert Samuel, offered a menorah as a gift to the Israeli
parliament in the name of the British parliament. The menorah was designed
by the Jewish artist, Benno Elkan, who had fled from Nazi Germany to England.
After it was decided that on the menorah there would appear, in relief,
depictions of Jewish history, from the times of the Bible an up till the
establishment of the State of Israel, there arose the fear that displaying
a menorah would invoke feelings of anger and unpleasantness, since there
would appear on it human figures, which is in contravention of the biblical
command “You shall not make for yourself, a graven image, nor any
manner of likeness”. As a result of this apprehension, they approached
the Chief Rabbi of those days, Rabbi Herzog, and he, after lengthy investigations
as to the nature of the depictions, gave his permission to the project.
The menorah was presented to the Knesset six years after the original
offer, as part of the Independence Day celebrations of the year 5716 (1956).
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